Gene-alcohol interactions in birth defects.

Most human birth defects are thought to result from complex interactions between combinations of genetic and environmental factors. This is true even for conditions that, at face value, may appear simple and straightforward, like fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). FASD describe the full range of structural and neurological disruptions that result from prenatal alcohol exposure. While FASD require alcohol exposure, evidence from human and animal model studies demonstrate that additional genetic and/or environmental factors can influence the embryo's susceptibility to alcohol. Only a limited number of alcohol interactions in birth defects have been identified, with many sensitizing genetic and environmental factors likely yet to be identified. Because of this, while unsatisfying, there is no definitively "safe" dose of alcohol for all pregnancies. Determining these other factors, as well as mechanistically characterizing known interactions, is critical for better understanding and preventing FASD and requires combined scrutiny of human and model organism studies.

Frem1 activity is regulated by Sonic hedgehog signaling in the cranial neural crest mesenchyme during midfacial morphogenesis.

BACKGROUND: Frem1 has been linked to human face shape variation, dysmorphology, and malformation, but little is known about its regulation and biological role in facial development. RESULTS: During midfacial morphogenesis in mice, we observed Frem1 expression in the embryonic growth centers that form the median upper lip, nose, and palate. Expansive spatial gradients of Frem1 expression in the cranial neural crest cell (cNCC) mesenchyme of these tissues suggested transcriptional regulation by a secreted morphogen. Accordingly, Frem1 expression paralleled that of the conserved Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) target gene Gli1 in the cNCC mesenchyme. Suggesting direct transcriptional regulation by Shh signaling, we found that Frem1 expression is induced by SHH ligand stimulation or downstream pathway activation in cNCCs and observed GLI transcription factor binding at the Frem1 transcriptional start site during midfacial morphogenesis. Finally, we found that FREM1 is sufficient to induce cNCC proliferation in a concentration-dependent manner and that Shh pathway antagonism reduces Frem1 expression during pathogenesis of midfacial hypoplasia. CONCLUSIONS: By demonstrating that the Shh signaling pathway regulates Frem1 expression in cNCCs, these findings provide novel insight into the mechanisms underlying variation in midfacial morphogenesis.

High-throughput detection of craniofacial defects in fluorescent zebrafish.

Losses and malformations of cranial neural crest cell (cNCC) derivatives are a hallmark of several common brain and face malformations. Nevertheless, the etiology of these cNCC defects remains unknown for many cases, suggesting a complex basis involving interactions between genetic and/or environmental factors. However, the sheer number of possible factors (thousands of genes and hundreds of thousands of toxicants) has hindered identification of specific interactions. Here, we develop a high-throughput analysis that will enable faster identification of multifactorial interactions in the genesis of craniofacial defects. Zebrafish embryos expressing a fluorescent marker of cNCCs (fli1:EGFP) were exposed to a pathway inhibitor standard or environmental toxicant, and resulting changes in fluorescence were measured in high-throughput using a fluorescent microplate reader to approximate cNCC losses. Embryos exposed to the environmental Hedgehog pathway inhibitor piperonyl butoxide (PBO), a Hedgehog pathway inhibitor standard, or alcohol (ethanol) exhibited reduced fli1:EGFP fluorescence at one day post fertilization, which corresponded with craniofacial defects at five days post fertilization. Combining PBO and alcohol in a co-exposure paradigm synergistically reduced fluorescence, demonstrating a multifactorial interaction. Using pathway reporter transgenics, we show that the plate reader assay is sensitive at detecting alterations in Hedgehog signaling, a critical regulator of craniofacial development. We go on to demonstrate that this technique readily detects defects in other important cell types, namely neurons. Together, these findings demonstrate this novel in vivo platform can predict developmental abnormalities and multifactorial interactions in high-throughput.

Identifying environmental risk factors and gene-environment interactions in holoprosencephaly.

BACKGROUND: Holoprosencephaly is the most common malformation of the forebrain (1 in 250 embryos) with severe consequences for fetal and child development. This study evaluates nongenetic factors associated with holoprosencephaly risk, severity, and gene-environment interactions. METHODS: For this retrospective case control study, we developed an online questionnaire focusing on exposures to common and rare toxins/toxicants before and during pregnancy, nutritional factors, maternal health history, and demographic factors. Patients with holoprosencephaly were primarily ascertained from our ongoing genetic and clinical studies of holoprosencephaly. Controls included children with Williams-Beuren syndrome (WBS) ascertained through online advertisements in a WBD support group and fliers. RESULTS: Difference in odds of exposures between cases and controls as well as within cases with varying holoprosencephaly severity were studied. Cases included children born with holoprosencephaly (n = 92) and the control group consisted of children with WBS (n = 56). Pregnancy associated risk associated with holoprosencephaly included maternal pregestational diabetes (9.2% of cases and 0 controls, p = .02), higher alcohol consumption (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.73; 95% CI, 0.88-15.71), and exposure to consumer products such as aerosols or sprays including hair sprays (aOR, 2.46; 95% CI, 0.89-7.19). Significant gene-environment interactions were identified including for consumption of cheese (p < .05) and espresso drinks (p = .03). CONCLUSION: The study identifies modifiable risk factors and gene-environment interactions that should be considered in future prevention of holoprosencephaly. Studies with larger HPE cohorts will be needed to confirm these findings.

Multifactorial Genetic and Environmental Hedgehog Pathway Disruption Sensitizes Embryos to Alcohol-Induced Craniofacial Defects.

BACKGROUND: Prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE) is perhaps the most common environmental cause of human birth defects. These exposures cause a range of structural and neurological defects, including facial dysmorphologies, collectively known as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). While PAE causes FASD, phenotypic outcomes vary widely. It is thought that multifactorial genetic and environmental interactions modify the effects of PAE. However, little is known of the nature of these modifiers. Disruption of the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway has been suggested as a modifier of ethanol teratogenicity. In addition to regulating the morphogenesis of craniofacial tissues commonly disrupted in FASD, a core member of the Hh pathway, Smoothened, is susceptible to modulation by structurally diverse chemicals. These include environmentally prevalent teratogens like piperonyl butoxide (PBO), a synergist found in thousands of pesticide formulations. METHODS: Here, we characterize multifactorial genetic and environmental interactions using a zebrafish model of craniofacial development. RESULTS: We show that loss of a single allele of shha sensitized embryos to both alcohol- and PBO-induced facial defects. Co-exposure of PBO and alcohol synergized to cause more frequent and severe defects. The effects of this co-exposure were even more profound in the genetically susceptible shha heterozygotes. CONCLUSIONS: Together, these findings shed light on the multifactorial basis of alcohol-induced craniofacial defects. In addition to further implicating genetic disruption of the Hh pathway in alcohol teratogenicity, our findings suggest that co-exposure to environmental chemicals that perturb Hh signaling may be important variables in FASD and related craniofacial disorders.

Prenatal exposure to pesticides and risk for holoprosencephaly: a case-control study.

BACKGROUND: Pesticide exposure during susceptible windows and at certain doses are linked to numerous birth defects. Early experimental evidence suggests an association between active ingredients in pesticides and holoprosencephaly (HPE), the most common malformation of the forebrain in humans (1 in 250 embryos). No human studies to date have examined the association. This study investigated pesticides during multiple windows of exposure and fetal risk for HPE. It is hypothesized that pre-conception and early pregnancy, the time of brain development in utero, are the most critical windows of exposure. METHODS: A questionnaire was developed for this retrospective case-control study to estimate household, occupational, and environmental pesticide exposures. Four windows of exposure were considered: preconception, early, mid and late pregnancy. Cases were identified through the National Human Genome Research Institute's ongoing clinical studies of HPE. Similarly, controls were identified as children with Williams-Beuren syndrome, a genetic syndrome also characterized by congenital malformations, but etiologically unrelated to HPE. We assessed for differences in odds of exposures to pesticides between cases and controls. RESULTS: Findings from 91 cases and 56 controls showed an increased risk for HPE with reports of maternal exposure during pregnancy to select pesticides including personal insect repellants (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.89, confidence interval (CI): 0.96-9.50) and insecticides and acaricides for pets (aOR 3.84, CI:1.04-16.32). Exposure to household pest control products during the preconception period or during pregnancy was associated with increased risk for HPE (aOR 2.60, OR: 0.84-8.68). No associations were found for occupational exposures to pesticides during pregnancy (aOR: 1.15, CI: 0.11-11.42), although exposure rates were low. Higher likelihood for HPE was also observed with residency next to an agricultural field (aOR 3.24, CI: 0.94-12.31). CONCLUSIONS: Observational findings are consistent with experimental evidence and suggest that exposure to personal, household, and agricultural pesticides during pregnancy may increase risk for HPE. Further investigations of gene by environment interactions are warranted.

Loss-of-Function Variants in PPP1R12A: From Isolated Sex Reversal to Holoprosencephaly Spectrum and Urogenital Malformations.

In two independent ongoing next-generation sequencing projects for individuals with holoprosencephaly and individuals with disorders of sex development, and through international research collaboration, we identified twelve individuals with de novo loss-of-function (LoF) variants in protein phosphatase 1, regulatory subunit 12a (PPP1R12A), an important developmental gene involved in cell migration, adhesion, and morphogenesis. This gene has not been previously reported in association with human disease, and it has intolerance to LoF as illustrated by a very low observed-to-expected ratio of LoF variants in gnomAD. Of the twelve individuals, midline brain malformations were found in five, urogenital anomalies in nine, and a combination of both phenotypes in two. Other congenital anomalies identified included omphalocele, jejunal, and ileal atresia with aberrant mesenteric blood supply, and syndactyly. Six individuals had stop gain variants, five had a deletion or duplication resulting in a frameshift, and one had a canonical splice acceptor site loss. Murine and human in situ hybridization and immunostaining revealed PPP1R12A expression in the prosencephalic neural folds and protein localization in the lower urinary tract at critical periods for forebrain division and urogenital development. Based on these clinical and molecular findings, we propose the association of PPP1R12A pathogenic variants with a congenital malformations syndrome affecting the embryogenesis of the brain and genitourinary systems and including disorders of sex development.

Developmental Toxicity Assessment of Piperonyl Butoxide Exposure Targeting Sonic Hedgehog Signaling and Forebrain and Face Morphogenesis in the Mouse: An in Vitro and in Vivo Study.

BACKGROUND: Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) is a pesticide synergist used in residential, commercial, and agricultural settings. PBO was recently found to inhibit Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling, a key developmental regulatory pathway. Disruption of Shh signaling is linked to birth defects, including holoprosencephaly (HPE), a malformation of the forebrain and face thought to result from complex gene-environment interactions. OBJECTIVES: The impact of PBO on Shh signaling in vitro and forebrain and face development in vivo was examined. METHODS: The influence of PBO on Shh pathway transduction was assayed in mouse and human cell lines. To examine its teratogenic potential, a single dose of PBO (22-1,800mg/kg) was administered by oral gavage to C57BL/6J mice at gestational day 7.75, targeting the critical period for HPE. Gene-environment interactions were investigated using Shh+/- mice, which model human HPE-associated genetic mutations. RESULTS: PBO attenuated Shh signaling in vitro through a mechanism similar to that of the known teratogen cyclopamine. In utero PBO exposure caused characteristic HPE facial dysmorphology including dose-dependent midface hypoplasia and hypotelorism, with a lowest observable effect level of 67mg/kg. Median forebrain deficiency characteristic of HPE was observed in severely affected animals, whereas all effective doses disrupted development of Shh-dependent transient forebrain structures that generate cortical interneurons. Normally silent heterozygous Shh null mutations exacerbated PBO teratogenicity at all doses tested, including 33mg/kg. DISCUSSION: These findings demonstrate that prenatal PBO exposure can cause overt forebrain and face malformations or neurodevelopmental disruptions with subtle or no craniofacial dysmorphology in mice. By targeting Shh signaling as a sensitive mechanism of action and examining gene-environment interactions, this study defined a lowest observable effect level for PBO developmental toxicity in mice more than 30-fold lower than previously recognized. Human exposure to PBO and its potential contribution to etiologically complex birth defects should be rigorously examined. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5260.

Cohesin complex-associated holoprosencephaly.

Marked by incomplete division of the embryonic forebrain, holoprosencephaly is one of the most common human developmental disorders. Despite decades of phenotype-driven research, 80-90% of aneuploidy-negative holoprosencephaly individuals with a probable genetic aetiology do not have a genetic diagnosis. Here we report holoprosencephaly associated with variants in the two X-linked cohesin complex genes, STAG2 and SMC1A, with loss-of-function variants in 10 individuals and a missense variant in one. Additionally, we report four individuals with variants in the cohesin complex genes that are not X-linked, SMC3 and RAD21. Using whole mount in situ hybridization, we show that STAG2 and SMC1A are expressed in the prosencephalic neural folds during primary neurulation in the mouse, consistent with forebrain morphogenesis and holoprosencephaly pathogenesis. Finally, we found that shRNA knockdown of STAG2 and SMC1A causes aberrant expression of HPE-associated genes ZIC2, GLI2, SMAD3 and FGFR1 in human neural stem cells. These findings show the cohesin complex as an important regulator of median forebrain development and X-linked inheritance patterns in holoprosencephaly.

A CCR4-NOT Transcription Complex, Subunit 1, CNOT1, Variant Associated with Holoprosencephaly.

Holoprosencephaly is the incomplete separation of the forebrain during embryogenesis. Both genetic and environmental etiologies have been determined for holoprosencephaly; however, a genetic etiology is not found in most cases. In this report, we present two unrelated individuals with semilobar holoprosencephaly who have the identical de novo missense variant in the gene CCR4-NOT transcription complex, subunit 1 (CNOT1). The variant (c.1603C>T [p.Arg535Cys]) is predicted to be deleterious and is not present in public databases. CNOT1 has not been previously associated with holoprosencephaly or other brain malformations. In situ hybridization analyses of mouse embryos show that Cnot1 is expressed in the prosencephalic neural folds at gestational day 8.25 during the critical period for subsequent forebrain division. Combining human and mouse data, we show that CNOT1 is associated with incomplete forebrain division.

Identification of sonic hedgehog-regulated genes and biological processes in the cranial neural crest mesenchyme by comparative transcriptomics.

BACKGROUND: The evolutionarily conserved Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling pathway is essential for embryogenesis and orofacial development. SHH ligand secreted from the surface ectoderm activates pathway activity in the underlying cranial neural crest cell (cNCC)-derived mesenchyme of the developing upper lip and palate. Disruption of Shh signaling causes orofacial clefts, but the biological action of Shh signaling and the full set of Shh target genes that mediate normal and abnormal orofacial morphogenesis have not been described. RESULTS: Using comparative transcriptional profiling, we have defined the Shh-regulated genes of the cNCC-derived mesenchyme. Enrichment analysis demonstrated that in cultured cNCCs, Shh-regulated genes are involved in smooth muscle and chondrocyte differentiation, as well as regulation of the Forkhead family of transcription factors, G1/S cell cycle transition, and angiogenesis. Next, this gene set from Shh-activated cNCCs in vitro was compared to the set of genes dysregulated in the facial primordia in vivo during the initial pathogenesis of Shh pathway inhibitor-induced orofacial clefting. Functional gene annotation enrichment analysis of the 112 Shh-regulated genes with concordant expression changes linked Shh signaling to interdependent and unique biological processes including mesenchyme development, cell adhesion, cell proliferation, cell migration, angiogenesis, perivascular cell markers, and orofacial clefting. CONCLUSIONS: We defined the Shh-regulated transcriptome of the cNCC-derived mesenchyme by comparing the expression signatures of Shh-activated cNCCs in vitro to primordial midfacial tissues exposed to the Shh pathway inhibitor in vivo. In addition to improving our understanding of cNCC biology by determining the identity and possible roles of cNCC-specific Shh target genes, this study presents novel candidate genes whose examination in the context of human orofacial clefting etiology is warranted.

Common basis for orofacial clefting and cortical interneuronopathy.

Orofacial clefts (OFCs) of the lip and/or palate are among the most common human birth defects. Current treatment strategies focus on functional and cosmetic repair but even when this care is available, individuals born with OFCs are at high risk for persistent neurobehavioral problems. In addition to learning disabilities and reduced academic achievement, recent evidence associates OFCs with elevated risk for a constellation of psychiatric outcomes including anxiety disorders, autism spectrum disorder, and schizophrenia. The relationship between these outcomes and OFCs is poorly understood and controversial. Recent neuroimaging studies in humans and mice demonstrate subtle morphological brain abnormalities that co-occur with OFCs but specific molecular and cellular mechanisms have not been investigated. Here, we provide the first evidence directly linking OFC pathogenesis to abnormal development of GABAergic cortical interneurons (cINs). Lineage tracing revealed that the structures that form the upper lip and palate develop in molecular synchrony and spatiotemporal proximity to cINs, suggesting these populations may have shared sensitivity to genetic and/or teratogenic insult. Examination of cIN development in a mouse model of nonsyndromic OFCs revealed significant disruptions in cIN proliferation and migration, culminating in misspecification of the somatostatin-expressing subgroup. These findings reveal a unified developmental basis for orofacial clefting and disrupted cIN development, and may explain the significant overlap in neurobehavioral and psychiatric outcomes associated with OFCs and cIN dysfunction. This emerging mechanistic understanding for increased prevalence of adverse neurobehavioral outcomes in OFC patients is the entry-point for developing evidence-based therapies to improve patient outcomes.

Coordinated d-cyclin/Foxd1 activation drives mitogenic activity of the Sonic Hedgehog signaling pathway.

Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling plays key regulatory roles in embryonic development and postnatal homeostasis and repair. Modulation of the Shh pathway is known to cause malformations and malignancies associated with dysregulated tissue growth. However, our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which Shh regulates cellular proliferation is incomplete. Here, using mouse embryonic fibroblasts, we demonstrate that the Forkhead box gene Foxd1 is transcriptionally regulated by canonical Shh signaling and required for downstream proliferative activity. We show that Foxd1 deletion abrogates the proliferative response to SHH ligand while FOXD1 overexpression alone is sufficient to induce cellular proliferation. The proliferative response to both SHH ligand and FOXD1 overexpression was blocked by pharmacologic inhibition of cyclin-dependent kinase signaling. Time-course experiments revealed that Shh pathway activation of Foxd1 is followed by downregulation of Cdkn1c, which encodes a cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor. Consistent with a direct transcriptional regulation mechanism, we found that FOXD1 reduces reporter activity of a Fox enhancer sequence in the second intron of Cdkn1c. Supporting the applicability of these findings to specific biological contexts, we show that Shh regulation of Foxd1 and Cdkn1c is recapitulated in cranial neural crest cells and provide evidence that this mechanism is operational during upper lip morphogenesis. These results reveal a novel Shh-Foxd1-Cdkn1c regulatory circuit that drives the mitogenic action of Shh signaling and may have broad implications in development and disease.

Human germline hedgehog pathway mutations predispose to fatty liver.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common form of liver disease. Activation of hedgehog (Hh) signaling has been implicated in the progression of NAFLD and proposed as a therapeutic target; however, the effects of Hh signaling inhibition have not been studied in humans with germline mutations that affect this pathway. METHODS: Patients with holoprosencephaly (HPE), a disorder associated with germline mutations disrupting Sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling, were clinically evaluated for NAFLD. A combined mouse model of Hh signaling attenuation (Gli2 heterozygous null: Gli2+/-) and diet-induced NAFLD was used to examine aspects of NAFLD and hepatic gene expression profiles, including molecular markers of hepatic fibrosis and inflammation. RESULTS: Patients with HPE had a higher prevalence of liver steatosis compared to the general population, independent of obesity. Exposure of Gli2+/- mice to fatty liver-inducing diets resulted in increased liver steatosis compared to wild-type mice. Similar to humans, this effect was independent of obesity in the mutant mice and was associated with decreased expression of pro-fibrotic and pro-inflammatory genes, and increased expression of PPARγ, a potent anti-fibrogenic and anti-inflammatory regulator. Interestingly, tumor suppressors p53 and p16INK4 were found to be downregulated in the Gli2+/- mice exposed to a high-fat diet. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that germline mutations disrupting Hh signaling promotes liver steatosis, independent of obesity, with reduced fibrosis. While Hh signaling inhibition has been associated with a better NAFLD prognosis, further studies are required to evaluate the long-term effects of mutations affecting this pathway. Lay summary: Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is characterized by excess fat deposition in the liver predominantly due to high calorie intake and a sedentary lifestyle. NAFLD progression is usually accompanied by activation of the Sonic hedgehog (SHH) pathway leading to fibrous buildup (scar tissue) and inflammation of the liver tissue. For the first time patients with holoprosencephaly, a disease caused by SHH signaling mutations, are shown to have increased liver steatosis independent of obesity. This observation was recapitulated in a mouse model of attenuated SHH signaling that also showed increased liver steatosis but with decreased fibrosis and inflammation. While SHH inhibition is associated with a good NAFLD prognosis, this increase in liver fat accumulation in the context of SHH signaling inhibition must be studied prospectively to evaluate its long-term effects, especially in individuals with Western-type dietary habits.

Sonic hedgehog regulation of Foxf2 promotes cranial neural crest mesenchyme proliferation and is disrupted in cleft lip morphogenesis.

Cleft lip is one of the most common human birth defects, yet our understanding of the mechanisms that regulate lip morphogenesis is limited. Here, we show in mice that sonic hedgehog (Shh)-induced proliferation of cranial neural crest cell (cNCC) mesenchyme is required for upper lip closure. Gene expression profiling revealed a subset of Forkhead box (Fox) genes that are regulated by Shh signaling during lip morphogenesis. During cleft pathogenesis, reduced proliferation in the medial nasal process mesenchyme paralleled the domain of reduced Foxf2 and Gli1 expression. SHH ligand induction of Foxf2 expression was dependent upon Shh pathway effectors in cNCCs, while a functional GLI-binding site was identified downstream of Foxf2 Consistent with the cellular mechanism demonstrated for cleft lip pathogenesis, we found that either SHH ligand addition or FOXF2 overexpression is sufficient to induce cNCC proliferation. Finally, analysis of a large multi-ethnic human population with cleft lip identified clusters of single-nucleotide polymorphisms in FOXF2 These data suggest that direct targeting of Foxf2 by Shh signaling drives cNCC mesenchyme proliferation during upper lip morphogenesis, and that disruption of this sequence results in cleft lip.

Gli2 gene-environment interactions contribute to the etiological complexity of holoprosencephaly: evidence from a mouse model.

Holoprosencephaly (HPE) is a common and severe human developmental abnormality marked by malformations of the forebrain and face. Although several genetic mutations have been linked to HPE, phenotypic outcomes range dramatically, and most cases cannot be attributed to a specific cause. Gene-environment interaction has been invoked as a premise to explain the etiological complexity of HPE, but identification of interacting factors has been extremely limited. Here, we demonstrate that mutations in Gli2, which encodes a Hedgehog pathway transcription factor, can cause or predispose to HPE depending upon gene dosage. On the C57BL/6J background, homozygous GLI2 loss of function results in the characteristic brain and facial features seen in severe human HPE, including midfacial hypoplasia, hypotelorism and medial forebrain deficiency with loss of ventral neurospecification. Although normally indistinguishable from wild-type littermates, we demonstrate that mice with single-allele Gli2 mutations exhibit increased penetrance and severity of HPE in response to low-dose teratogen exposure. This genetic predisposition is associated with a Gli2 dosage-dependent attenuation of Hedgehog ligand responsiveness at the cellular level. In addition to revealing a causative role for GLI2 in HPE genesis, these studies demonstrate a mechanism by which normally silent genetic and environmental factors can interact to produce severe outcomes. Taken together, these findings provide a framework for the understanding of the extreme phenotypic variability observed in humans carrying GLI2 mutations and a paradigm for reducing the incidence of this morbid birth defect.

Definition of critical periods for Hedgehog pathway antagonist-induced holoprosencephaly, cleft lip, and cleft palate.

The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway mediates multiple spatiotemporally-specific aspects of brain and face development. Genetic and chemical disruptions of the pathway are known to result in an array of structural malformations, including holoprosencephaly (HPE), clefts of the lip with or without cleft palate (CL/P), and clefts of the secondary palate only (CPO). Here, we examined patterns of dysmorphology caused by acute, stage-specific Hh signaling inhibition. Timed-pregnant wildtype C57BL/6J mice were administered a single dose of the potent pathway antagonist vismodegib at discrete time points between gestational day (GD) 7.0 and 10.0, an interval approximately corresponding to the 15th to 24th days of human gestation. The resultant pattern of facial and brain dysmorphology was dependent upon stage of exposure. Insult between GD7.0 and GD8.25 resulted in HPE, with peak incidence following exposure at GD7.5. Unilateral clefts of the lip extending into the primary palate were also observed, with peak incidence following exposure at GD8.875. Insult between GD9.0 and GD10.0 resulted in CPO and forelimb abnormalities. We have previously demonstrated that Hh antagonist-induced cleft lip results from deficiency of the medial nasal process and show here that CPO is associated with reduced growth of the maxillary-derived palatal shelves. By defining the critical periods for the induction of HPE, CL/P, and CPO with fine temporal resolution, these results provide a mechanism by which Hh pathway disruption can result in "non-syndromic" orofacial clefting, or HPE with or without co-occurring clefts. This study also establishes a novel and tractable mouse model of human craniofacial malformations using a single dose of a commercially available and pathway-specific drug.

Characterization of subtle brain abnormalities in a mouse model of Hedgehog pathway antagonist-induced cleft lip and palate.

Subtle behavioral and cognitive deficits have been documented in patient cohorts with orofacial clefts (OFCs). Recent neuroimaging studies argue that these traits are associated with structural brain abnormalities but have been limited to adolescent and adult populations where brain plasticity during infancy and childhood may be a confounding factor. Here, we employed high resolution magnetic resonance microscopy to examine primary brain morphology in a mouse model of OFCs. Transient in utero exposure to the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway antagonist cyclopamine resulted in a spectrum of facial dysmorphology, including unilateral and bilateral cleft lip and palate, cleft of the secondary palate only, and a non-cleft phenotype marked by midfacial hypoplasia. Relative to controls, cyclopamine-exposed fetuses exhibited volumetric differences in several brain regions, including hypoplasia of the pituitary gland and olfactory bulbs, hyperplasia of the forebrain septal region, and expansion of the third ventricle. However, in affected fetuses the corpus callosum was intact and normal division of the forebrain was observed. This argues that temporally-specific Hh signaling perturbation can result in typical appearing OFCs in the absence of holoprosencephaly--a condition classically associated with Hh pathway inhibition and frequently co-occurring with OFCs. Supporting the premise that some forms of OFCs co-occur with subtle brain malformations, these results provide a possible ontological basis for traits identified in clinical populations. They also argue in favor of future investigations into genetic and/or environmental modulation of the Hh pathway in the etiopathogenesis of orofacial clefting.

The teratogenic effects of prenatal ethanol exposure are exacerbated by Sonic Hedgehog or GLI2 haploinsufficiency in the mouse.

Disruption of the Hedgehog signaling pathway has been implicated as an important molecular mechanism in the pathogenesis of fetal alcohol syndrome. In severe cases, the abnormalities of the face and brain that result from prenatal ethanol exposure fall within the spectrum of holoprosencephaly. Single allele mutations in the Hh pathway genes Sonic Hedgehog (SHH) and GLI2 cause holoprosencephaly with extremely variable phenotypic penetrance in humans. Here, we tested whether mutations in these genes alter the frequency or severity of ethanol-induced dysmorphology in a mouse model. Timed pregnancies were established by mating Shh(+/-) or Gli2(+/-) male mice backcrossed to C57BL/6J strain, with wildtype females. On gestational day 7, dams were treated with two i.p. doses of 2.9 g/kg ethanol (or vehicle alone), administered four hrs apart. Fetuses were then genotyped and imaged, and the severity of facial dysmorphology was assessed. Following ethanol exposure, mean dysmorphology scores were increased by 3.2- and 6.6-fold in Shh(+/-) and Gli2(+/-) groups, respectively, relative to their wildtype littermates. Importantly, a cohort of heterozygous fetuses exhibited phenotypes not typically produced in this model but associated with severe holoprosencephaly, including exencephaly, median cleft lip, otocephaly, and proboscis. As expected, a correlation between the severity of facial dysmorphology and medial forebrain deficiency was observed in affected animals. While Shh(+/-) and Gli2(+/-) mice have been described as phenotypically normal, these results illustrate a functional haploinsufficiency of both genes in combination with ethanol exposure. By demonstrating an interaction between specific genetic and environmental risk factors, this study provides important insights into the multifactorial etiology and complex pathogenesis of fetal alcohol syndrome and holoprosencephaly.

Ethanol-induced face-brain dysmorphology patterns are correlative and exposure-stage dependent.

Prenatal ethanol exposure is the leading preventable cause of congenital mental disability. Whereas a diagnosis of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) requires identification of a specific pattern of craniofacial dysmorphology, most individuals with behavioral and neurological sequelae of heavy prenatal ethanol exposure do not exhibit these defining facial characteristics. Here, a novel integration of MRI and dense surface modeling-based shape analysis was applied to characterize concurrent face-brain phenotypes in C57Bl/6J fetuses exposed to ethanol on gestational day (GD)7 or GD8.5. The facial phenotype resulting from ethanol exposure depended upon stage of insult and was predictive of unique patterns of corresponding brain abnormalities. Ethanol exposure on GD7 produced a constellation of dysmorphic facial features characteristic of human FAS, including severe midfacial hypoplasia, shortening of the palpebral fissures, an elongated upper lip, and deficient philtrum. In contrast, ethanol exposure on GD8.5 caused mild midfacial hypoplasia and palpebral fissure shortening, a shortened upper lip, and a preserved philtrum. These distinct, stage-specific facial phenotypes were associated with unique volumetric and shape abnormalities of the septal region, pituitary, and olfactory bulbs. By demonstrating that early prenatal ethanol exposure can cause more than one temporally-specific pattern of defects, these findings illustrate the need for an expansion of current diagnostic criteria to better capture the full range of facial and brain dysmorphology in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.